Wednesday, August 31, 2011

Computers


Question: Computers are wonderful aren’t they?

Answer: Here are some things about them in a classroom setting that, unfortunately, are always true. And I could name a number of other bothersome problems, as well.

Quote: “There are never enough computer stations for the learners; the available software is seldom what I would have chosen and often different from what was promised; there are always turned-off learners and at least on computerphobe in every group.” P. 458.

Comment: No matter what the technology, something always goes wrong. It’s the story of my teaching life. RayS.

Title: “Reading and Writing Between the Lines: An Interactive Approach to Using Computers.” Bill Bernhardt. Journal of Reading (March 1994), 458-463.

Tuesday, August 30, 2011

Anticipation Guides


Question: What are the values of anticipation guides to comprehending expository texts?

Answer: An anticipation guide provides statements about the contents of the text with which the student agrees or disagrees.

Quote: “Beginning with fourth grade or thereabouts, there is a discernible shift from learning to read, the customary vehicle of which is narrative text, to reading to learn, for which expository text is the chief medium. The significance of this shift lies in the fact that expository text is generally more difficult to comprehend….” P. 452.

Quote: “As a pre-reading strategy the Anticipation Guide has much to offer: It can activate students’ prior knowledge, stimulate thinking, challenge students’ beliefs, raise expectations about meaning, motivate active reading and help convince students to modify erroneous beliefs. In short, the Anticipation Guide can promote reading to learn from expository text.” P. 457.

Comment: I wish I had known about Anticipation Guides when I was teaching. I can recognize their value. RayS.

Title: “Effective Anticipation Guide Statements for Learning from Expository Prose.” FA Duffelmeyer. Journal of Reading (March 1994), 452-457.

Note: For the last month and a half, this blog has been concerned with techniques for teaching English as a second language (ESL) students. I learned right along with my readers. Now I plan to return to past articles that still have value in today’s teaching of English. RayS.

Monday, August 29, 2011

Grammar and ESL Students


Question: How should teachers approach the use of grammatical terms in working with ESL students?

 Answer: “Bruder and Henderson (1986) remind teachers that beginners in a new language do not have the metalanguage to talk about the tenses of verbs, the relationships in a grammatical structure, and other features of language. Students are often given tasks that require descriptions and analyses of language before they have acquired and used the language or have any real understanding of its terminology.” P. 212.

Comment: If you don’t need them, use them only when needed. Of course, certain basic terms will be needed right away—clause,  sentence, phrase; comma colon and semicolon. I teach these terms to native speakers of English when students actually need them and can use them to understand the concept behind them.  I don’t use exercises, except for reinforcement after students have used them when needed. I know some teachers teach differently, but I don’t use exercises before students have the opportunity to use the grammatical term when needed. RayS.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Friday, August 26, 2011

Basic Techniques for Teaching ESL Students


Question: What are some fundamental approaches in working with ESL students?”

Answer:
Quote:  “To ensure comprehension, use an expressive voice, gesture, pantomime, objects and pictures whenever possible in presenting lessons.”

. “To nurture self-esteem, display students’ work in the classroom—drawings, writings, murals, messages, and other efforts.”

. “To achieve real communication, encourage conversations, role-playing, questioning, and other opportunities to send and receive actual messages.”

. “Keep in mind that, although at times activities are listed separately for convenience, listening, comprehension, speaking, reading, writing and thinking are not isolated, separate mental activities.” P. 211.

Title: “Conclusion: The ESL Student: Reflections in the Present, Concerns for the Future..” EW Thonis, pp. 207-216.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Thursday, August 25, 2011

Authentic Assessments


Question: Why use authentic assessments with ESL students?

Answer/Quote: “We need to understand why many second-language students do not score well on formal literacy measures in English. Formal literacy measures provide a sampling of students performance. Because formal literacy tests often underestimate the reading performance of second-language students…, teachers of these students need to look beyond these tests to understand students’ literacy performance. This does not mean that formal literacy measures cannot be used, but that they need to be used cautiously and in concert with authentic assessment measures.” P. 201.

List of authentic assessments discussed in the preceding blogs:

.classroom observation

.oral miscue analysis

.story retelling

.story telling or writing

.tape recording of oral reading

.reading logs

.reading response logs

 Writing folders

.student-teacher conferences.

Comment: I began reading this booklet, thinking that there was some magic formula for working with ESL students. What I learned was that the practices recommended for use with ESL students were the same techniques that I used with students whose native language is English. The techniques need to be adapted, but they are the same techniques I use with English-speaking students. In other words, just plain good teachings. RayS.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Wednesday, August 24, 2011

Authentic Assessment ESL: Student-Teacher Conferences

Question: What can teachers learn from student-teacher conferences?

Answer/Quote: “Teachers can ask students to explain how they approached and completed some of the key tasks…. In addition, teachers can use the time to ask second-language students how they view their progress in the two languages. They can also ask students to identify what they are currently finding easy and difficult to do. This procedure may uncover unique problems or questions teachers never anticipated.” P. 200.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Tuesday, August 23, 2011

Authentic Assessment ESL: Writing Folders

Question: What are the advantages of writing folders?

Answer/Quote: “Writing folders or portfolios include samples of students’ written work collected over time….. Teachers should encourage students to keep their drafts, revisions and final copies in the folders as well as works in progress…. The folder can contain formal as well as informal pieces.”

Quote: “Even very young children can produce writing that, although unsophisticated, demonstrates their emerging literacy…as well as write their own stories by using invented spelling. Dating work and sorting it in a portfolio allows teachers to keep a running record of children’s progress.” P. 199.

Quote: “Bilingual students should be free to use both languages to plan and revise text and be encouraged to keep various versions of a text in their folders, although monolingual English-speaking teachers may want to see a final product in English.” P. 200.

Quote: “If students do a lot of writing and teachers do not want to review it all, they can ask students to select what they consider to be their best work. Students can then give teachers the final product as well as the various drafts that went into its preparation. Teachers need to see how students progressed throughout the writing process if they are to further students’ writing development.” P. 200.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Monday, August 22, 2011

Authentic Assessment ESL: Reading Response Logs


Question: How can teachers encourage a dialogue with individual students about their reading?

Answer/Quote: “Reading response logs are notebooks in which students record their responses to what they read, and teachers reply to those responses…. Teachers who use reading-response logs generally encourage students to react personally to what they read. In a sense, response logs become dialogues between students and teachers about books the students are reading.” P. 196.

Quote: “Some students may find it difficult to react personally to a text and instead will simply summarize what they have been reading.” Teachers should encourage students to react personally to what they are reading.” P. 196-197.

Quote: “Response logs provide teachers with information about how students are synthesizing and interpreting information from their reading. “ p. 197.

Quote: “Sometimes students will write about topics that they are hesitant to discuss in front of the class. In addition, teachers can use the logs to monitor and aid students’ writing development. In short, both reading and writing performance can be enhanced and assessed with reading-response logs.” P. 197.

Quote: “Teachers who use reading-response logs in their classrooms often collect them from students on a rotating basis.” P. 197.

Comment: Reading Response Logs could be used as a prelude to my ten-minute essays. RayS.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Friday, August 19, 2011

Authentic Assessment ESL: Reading Logs


Question: How can teachers keep track of what ESL—and native English students—have read?

Answer/Quote: “Reading Logs. Students can also benefit by keeping an ongoing record of the different types of material they are reading….. In a reading log, students record the author and title of the different stories and books they have read, noting the date they completed the text. Teachers review the logs periodically, noting the types of materials and genres that the students are reading as well as the number of books…. …they ask the students to write a short annotation for each item read.” P. 196.

Quote: “If teachers are working with students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, the students should be encouraged to expand the categories listed in the logs to include newspaper and magazine articles, letters, and other types of texts that might be common in some of the students’ homes….” P. 196.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Thursday, August 18, 2011

Authentic Assessment ESL: Language Proficiency


Question: How can teachers assess students’ proficiency in expressive reading and reading fluency?

Answer/Quote: “Teachers can periodically have students tape-record their oral reading. (Routrman, 1988). Ideally, students should be given the option to choose the selection they want to read, to rehearse it, and, when ready, to tape-record their performance. Tapes of students’ oral reading provide teachers with information about students’ expressive reading and reading fluency.”

“If students are not choosing a variety of texts or if teachers want to determine whether students can read more difficult texts, teachers can also ask students to read designated texts.” P. 195.

Comment: Note that students should be given the opportunity to rehearse what they plan to read. Another activity that is appropriate for both ESL students and students whose native language is English. RayS.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Wednesday, August 17, 2011

Authentic Assessment ESL: Story Telling or Writing


Question: What can be learned about ESL students’ progress in learning English from their telling or writing a story?

Answer: Give students a series of pictures from a picture book. ESL students attempt to write a story from viewing the pictures. They can insert their native language when they don’t have English words at their disposal.

Quote: “Both oral and written story telling indicate to teachers what students have learned about the conventions of narrative English text. They also provide teachers with additional information about students’ developing English proficiency.”

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Tuesday, August 16, 2011

Authentic Assessment and ESL Students: Story Retelling

Question: What can be learned by having students retell the stories they have read?

Answer/Quote: “Teachers can…ask students to retell what they have read. Teachers have a story map in front of them, and quickly check off the points that students make as they retell (Morrow, 1989). A simple story map typically includes headings that focus on the story setting (time, place, and principal characters), the problem…, initiating event, plot events or episodes, and resolution….” P. 194.

“If students have varied from the story in the retelling teachers can review the story with students in order to understand what precipitated the deviation.” P. 194.

Comment: I see nothing wrong with showing the students ahead of time the elements emphasized in the story map and to take them through a sample retelling as a group. RayS.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Monday, August 15, 2011

Authentic Assessment for ESL Students--Oral Miscue Analysis


Question: What can be learned about students’ proficiency in English by having them read aloud?

Answer:
Quote: “Monolingual and bilingual teachers can also conduct oral-miscue analysis of students’ oral reading to determine the different types of reading strategies the students employ. This requires some advance planning in that teachers need to have a transcript of the text to be read. As students read aloud, teachers note on the text any repetitions, substitutions, insertions, omissions, or self-corrections students make….. A more thorough analysis includes asking students to retell what was read (as in story retelling….)” 

Comment: Too many miscues will add up to the student’s not understanding what was read. RayS.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Friday, August 12, 2011

Authentic Assessment and ESL Students: Classroom Observation

Question: What are some examples of authentic assessment for ESL children?

Answer: Anecdotal records from classroom observation. Make notes on index cards, self-adhesive removable notes, in loose-leaf binders or spiral notebooks.

Quote: “For instance, a teacher may note that Min-Ling wrote her address in English for the first time, or that Ahmed had difficulty comprehending the volcano story because he did not appear to know what a volcano was.” P. 191

Use charts or checklists. {In most cases, teachers will list on the chart certain categories that they are interested in observing.” P. 191. Some sample categories: “Use of oral English.” “Use of Written English.” Place the chart on clipboards.

Quote: “Used creatively, anecdotal records and charts can help provide a more complete picture of second-language children’s emerging second-language proficiency and literacy development.” P. 193.

Title: “Assessing the Literacy Development of Second-Language Students: A Focus on Authentic Assessment.” Georgia Earnest Garcia, pp. 180-205.  In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Thursday, August 11, 2011

ESL Students and Comprehension of Expository Text

Question: What six questions help to organize students’ comprehension of expository text?

Answer/Quote: “Teachers should also remember to teach ESL learners about the Wh and how questions. When reading complex text, it is often useful to pause and ask who, what, where, when, why and how.” P. 177.

Comment:  Should help both native English and ESL students to organize their comprehension of what they have read. RayS.

Title: “Language, Literacy, and Content Instruction: Strategies for Teachers.” Alfredo Schifini. Pp. 158-179. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Wednesday, August 10, 2011

Academic Language for ESL Students

Question: How have you as a teacher helped native language speakers learn to read expository texts?

Answer: Make a list of successful techniques you, the teacher, have used with native speakers of English and suggest how you would adjust the techniques for ESL learners.

Here are my successful techniques for teaching native speakers of English to read expository texts successfully:

The Directed Reading Assignment.

Ask students what they already know about the topic to be read.

Pre-teach difficult or specialized vocabulary. Us context, roots, synonyms and antonyms.

Students read the title, sub—title, the first sentence of each paragraph in the chapter and the last paragraph.

Find out what they have learned from this survey of the chapter.

What questions do they expect to answer from reading  the text? I only use the questions in the text if the students have not come up with them.

Students read to answer the questions.

Discuss the answers to the questions.

Apply what they have learned in some way, including consulting the Internet on the topic.

How would I adjust this strategy for ESL students? I’d probably discuss with students each step—title, sub-title, fists sentence of each paragraph and last paragraph—more than I do with native speakers of English.

I would pay careful attention to charts and graphs and pictures in the text, helping them to understand the statistics in charts and graphs.

With vocabulary I would take advantage of familiar cognate in the student’s first language. RayS.

Title: “Language, Literacy, and Content Instruction: Strategies for Teachers.” Alfredo Schifini. Pp. 158-179. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994.

Tuesday, August 9, 2011

Summarizing "Reading, Writing and ESL Students"

Question: How can reading and writing help to support learning both skills?

Answer: They are mutually supportive.

.In teaching comprehension, teachers should complete for  themselves the following information about reading assignments:  comprehension of what, by whom and under what conditions—and I add for what purpose. RayS.

.Construct “story grammars” that help students complete in writing the essential ideas in a story or article.

.Use multiple texts for information on a topic.

.Students keep a reading log.

.Students brainstorm a topic before reading about it. Activates prior knowledge.

.Students construct a web of key ideas and details before, during and after they have read.

.Teach students how to summarize. Begin with lists of events in stories. Then show students where to find the main ideas and supporting details in expository material.

.Students engage in dialogue journals with the teacher.

Title: “Comprehending through Reading and Writing: Six Research-Based Instructional Strategies.” N Farnan, J Flood and D Lapp. Pp. 135-137. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994, 108-131.

Monday, August 8, 2011

Dialogue Journals and ESL Students

Question: What is the purpose of dialogue journals?

Answer/Quote: “The terms journal, log, diary, and notebook are used in various ways and at times interchangeably. Dialogue journals, however, differ markedly from typical classroom journals or logs. They are written conversations between partners, usually a student and teacher. Each student, regardless of his or her level of English proficiency, writes an entry daily…to which the teacher responds.”

“The teacher’s role is to support children’s literacy development and to respond as a conversationalist might, reacting with personal comments, anecdotes, and questions…. Students choose their own topics, write their entries and eagerly read the teacher’s response.”

“Dialogue journals have been found to be highly effective with second-language students, as well as with native speakers…. Studies that have examined the use of dialogue journals report substantial improvement in students’ writing fluency, elaboration of topics, and use of conventional syntax.”

Comment: Dialogue journals might be the first step in preparation for later 10-minute essays in which the students’ language is corrected by the teacher.  I assume that with the dialogue journal, the teacher does not correct the language, but models the proper use of language in responding to the students’ writing. RayS.

Title: “Comprehending through Reading and Writing: Six Research-Based Instructional Strategies.” N Farnan, J Flood and D Lapp. Pp. 135-137. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994, 108-131.

Friday, August 5, 2011

Summarizing and ESL Students


Question: How can teachers help ESL—and native English—speakers learn how to summarize?

Answer/Quote: “Interest in summarizing as a practice to promote reading comprehensions can be traced to studies of the 1920s and 1930s.”

“Hill (1991) makes the point that students do not know intuitively how to write effective summaries. The task is especially complex for second-language learners because they must negotiate both unfamiliar syntax and unfamiliar vocabulary to achieve comprehension and construct a summary. Hill suggests that teachers direct students to begin with the simplest type of summary: a chronology of events associated with narratives. This is, in essence, a retelling dictated by the simple progression of events in a story….”

“Moving beyond chronology, students…learn to condense by choosing main points and reorganizing them into summaries for a variety of text structures….” P. 149.

“…the teacher can write a summary while the students, alone or in small groups, write a summary of their own. Teacher and students can then compare these summaries, discussing and evaluating effective versus less effective products.” Pp. 149-150.

Comment: Using a list of events is a good beginning for learning how to write a summary. Beyond that, students need to learn where to find main ideas in expository material, in the thesis, in topic sentences and in final, summarizing paragraphs. I like the technique of having the teacher and the students writing their own summaries and then discussing their effectiveness. The point of summarizing, of course, is to demonstrate comprehension. However, writing good summaries is not easy. And students do need to be taught how to write them. RayS.

Title: “Comprehending through Reading and Writing: Six Research-Based Instructional Strategies.” N Farnan, J Flood and D Lapp. Pp. 135-137. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994, 108-131.

Thursday, August 4, 2011

Webbing and Prior Knowledge for ESL Students


Question: How can webs be used to develop ESL and native speakers of English students’ prior knowledge of a topic?

Answer/Quote: “Webbing provides a structure through which students can access and organize information and ideas and can actively connect the known to the new. Research and theory both support webbing as a vehicle for enhancing comprehension and learning.”

“For second language students, the networks of ideas that are captured in webs and concept maps highlight vocabulary and provide a concrete representation of information in a way that illustrates connections between concepts.”

“For example, before reading a social studies text on farming in the United States, a third-grade teacher can begin a web on the chalkboard, soliciting students’ prior knowledge about the subject. In the middle of a circle, the teacher writes the word ’farm,’ and on lines radiating out from the circle, the teacher writes words and phrases that students volunteer.” P. 146.

Comment: After reading the textbook chapter on “farming in the United States,” students can add additional information to the web. RayS.

Title: “Comprehending through Reading and Writing: Six Research-Based Instructional Strategies.” N Farnan, J Flood and D Lapp. Pp. 135-137. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994, 108-131.

Wednesday, August 3, 2011

Writing as Preparation for Reading: ESL


Question: How can ESL students—as well as native English speakers—use brainstorming in order to prepare for a reading assignment?

Answer/Quote: “Teachers use ‘quick-writes’ in classrooms for a variety of purposes as a brainstorming process before reading….for example, or as an opportunity to synthesize and display ideas during and after reading…. ‘Quick-writes’ call on students to jot down their ideas on a topic, without worrying unduly about correctness or mechanics.” P. 144.

“Writing before reading also helps students access ideas that will facilitate their understanding of narratives. For example, in Tuck Everlasting, Natalie Babbitt writes about eternal life, a subject that has fascinated human beings for centuries. Across cultures, various beliefs surround the subject of death and immortality. Bringing those various perspectives to light through students’ experiences and knowledge of their cultures not only helps individual students make connections with the story, but it also brings valuable information to the classroom. “

“Before beginning the novel, a teacher might ask students to think and write on the topic “Would you like to live forever?” Having an opportunity to explore their own thoughts relative to the subject and hearing the ideas of others will give the students a perspective on the problem that lies at the heart of this delightful book.”

Comment: Using “quick-writes” before reading also gives students experience with brainstorming. Brainstorming is an important part of the writing process. Whatever the topic the students are going to write about, they brainstorm ideas related to the topic in preparation for creating a thesis sentence. RayS.

Title: “Comprehending through Reading and Writing: Six Research-Based Instructional Strategies.” N Farnan, J Flood and D Lapp. Pp. 135-137. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994, 108-131.

Tuesday, August 2, 2011

Writing, Reading and ESL Students


Question: What is one method for students to use in responding to what they read?

Answer: “Students should be encouraged to write about what they read, keeping a log or journal in which to take notes and respond to what they find most interesting and informative.” P. 144.

Comment: Students should include questions about what they do not understand. Almost all of these techniques for ESL students are excellent techniques for native speakers of English. RayS.

Title: “Comprehending through Reading and Writing: Six Research-Based Instructional Strategies.” N Farnan, J Flood and D Lapp. Pp. 135-137. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994, 108-131.

Monday, August 1, 2011

Reading, Writing and ESL Students


Question: How use multiple texts to prepare for writing on a topic?

Answer: “Reading also serves as preparation for writing when students are given opportunities to read multiple texts and resources about a topic before and during their writing, thereby building a sufficient repertoire of concepts and vocabulary.”

"In discussion groups of four to six students, the children can take one or two minutes each to share a piece of information about their topics and to respond to questions from others in the group.” P. 143.

Comment: Sources could be various trade books dealing with the topic, textbooks, magazine articles, the Internet and reference works. RayS.

Title: “Comprehending through Reading and Writing: Six Research-Based Instructional Strategies.” N Farnan, J Flood and D Lapp. Pp. 135-137. In Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Eds. K Spangensberg-Urgschat and R Pritchard. Newark, DE: IRA. 1994, 108-131.